Directory services are a critical component of any enterprise environment. These services provide a database for central account management for both user and computer, as well as a framework for sharing that information among workstations and servers. Mac OS X's native directory service is called Open Directory.
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Every Mac OS X computer includes a local Open Directory database -- referred to as a domain -- that stores information about local user accounts. This local domain allows each user to have a computing experience and home directory, and the local domain works with the file system to manage permissions on files and folders. Mac OS X Server relies on shared Open Directory domains to provide network user accounts that can be used to log into computers that are bound to a shared domain. The shared domain can also allow users to access resources on other servers that are bound to the domain. Shared domains also allow systems administrators to define custom user environments.
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Open Directory is a multipart architecture that performs the basic functions of any directory service in addition to providing mechanisms for accessing non-native directory services platforms such as Microsoft Corp.'s Active Directory and Unix Network Information Service servers. It also has components that manage Mac OS X's access to self-discovering network protocols including Apple Computer Inc.'s Bonjour, Microsoft Corp.'s Server Message Block/Common Internet File System and the open standard Service Location Protocol. When discussing Open Directory, however, the phrase typically refers to its function as Mac OS X's native directory service.
NetInfo -- The local Open Directory domain
Each Mac OS X computer, including Mac OS X Server, has a local Open Directory domain. This domain stores all information about local users as well as information about the machine itself. The local domain for Mac OS X is a NetInfo domain. NetInfo is a proprietary directory service originally developed by NeXT Computer Inc. that originally served as Mac OS X's native directory service. As Mac OS X Server evolved, Apple replaced NetInfo with a service based on the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) that is often referred to as simply Open Directory.
There is little administration that needs to be done with the local NetInfo domain on Mac OS X computers. However, it is important to understand that the local domain is always the first source in which a Mac OS X computer will look for user information. It is also important to know that the local domain is visible in Mac OS X Server's Workgroup Manager; this is the tool used for managing user, group and computer accounts. User and group accounts stored in a server's local domain can access resources on the server, including share points, print queues and Internet services. Local accounts are not part of a shared domain, however, so they can't be used for log-in at Mac OS X computers.
Search paths for shared domains
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Mac OS X computers can be bound to multiple directory domains (both Open Directory and domains of other platforms such as Active Directory). This requires that a search path be established that defines the order in which available domains will be searched for account information. This is different from a Windows environment, in which a list of available domains is part of the log-in dialog. As mentioned above, the local NetInfo domain will always be first in the search path on Mac OS X. However, you can place any other domains in any order that you choose.
Search paths can be useful in a number of ways. They allow you to have separate containers for different groups of users and/or computers. They also allow you to build support for multiple directory service platforms that can mix and match advantages of each system. For example, you could rely on user accounts stored in Active Directory but manage computers using accounts stored in Open Directory, which enables you take advantage of Apple's client management architecture. Search paths are powerful tools, but it is important to recognize that if you have users with the same name in two domains in a search path, only the account in the first domain of the search path will actually be found.
Directory binding
Mac OS X computers can be bound to Open Directory domains in two ways. The first, and simplest, is Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Mac OS X Server can include information about a domain with other information in response to a computer's DHCP request. By default, Mac OS X will accept and use Open Directory configurations received by DHCP. This is helpful both because it saves the time and effort of manually configuring each computer in a network.
For static binding, you configure access to directory domains using the Directory Access utility, which is located in the Utilities folder inside Mac OS X's Applications folder. Directory Access includes plug-in modules that can be configured for each of Open Directory's features. For instance, the LDAP v3 plug-in manages Open Directory domain configuration and binding.
Search paths are set by using the Authentication tab in Directory Access. You can choose to use an automatic search that includes DHCP-supplied domains and the local domain; local-only, in which only the local domain is used; and custom, which allows you to manually configure and set the search path of available domains. You can also use the Contacts tab to set up LDAP search paths of domains for Mac OS X's Address Book application.
Managing shared domains
Mac OS X Server supports four Open Directory roles: stand-alone, Open Directory Master, Open Directory Replica and Connected to a Directory System. A stand-alone server relies solely on its local NetInfo domain and is typically not used as a file or print server. An Open Directory Master is a server that is hosting a shared domain.
An Open Directory Replica is a server that hosts a read-only copy of the domain. Replicas allow for load balancing and support remote locations where a slow network link makes direct access to the Open Directory Master impractical. Replicas also allow for fail-over in the case of a failure of the master.
'Connected to a directory system' refers to a server that's bound to a shared domain but that is not providing directory services. Users can access servers connected to a directory system using accounts stored in the shared domain. Typically file, print and e-mail servers will use this role. In smaller environments, however, a server might offer these services in addition to being an Open Directory master or replica.
Open Directory domains rely on the Domain Name System (DNS) to function. For this reason, ensuring that you have a fully functioning DNS infrastructure is critical to setting up Open Directory in a network. Frequently, Open Directory failures can be traced back to problems with DNS. One of the pitfalls of simply walking through Mac OS X Server's 'Server Assistant' tool, which runs automatically after a basic installation, is that the Assistant offers you the option of setting up a new Open Directory domain. This can cause problems if the server you are setting up will serve as an Open Directory Master and DNS server.
As complex as Open Directory is, both as a whole and in the structure of individual domains, Apple has made the setup process extremely simple, provided you have DNS and other network services set up properly beforehand. You can easily change an existing server into an Open Directory Master by simply selecting that role from a pop-up menu in Mac OS X Server's 'Server Admin' utility. Then you enter basic information about the domain, including an account that will have administrative authority over the domain, the LDAP search base for the domain and the Kerberos realm that the domain will use.
You can elect to set additional features at this time (or later) as well, including default domain password policies, whether computers must communicate with the domain over secure connections, and whether computers accessing the domain must be bound to it. All of these options can substantially increase security.
Setting up replica servers and binding other servers to the domain are equally simple. There are, of course, more advanced tools for some administrative tasks, many of them being command-line tools that are beyond the scope of this article. However, for most environments, the graphical tools in Server Admin are all you need to get an Open Directory infrastructure up and running.
Kerberos and the Open Directory password server
Open Directory provides multiple mechanisms for securing passwords. The original mechanism used by Mac OS X Server was to store passwords as an attribute of the user account object. This feature is referred to as 'basic passwords' and is still supported for backwards compatibility with older versions of Mac OS X and Mac OS X Server, though it must be chosen as a specific option for each user account.
Basic passwords are stored and transmitted in encrypted form. However, because they are stored in Open Directory domains, basic passwords are susceptible to offline security attacks using either Workgroup Manager or command-line Open Directory tools.
Open Directory also offers the default Open Directory password type. This technique stores user passwords outside of the domain itself in two places. The first is in a Kerberos realm. The second is in the Open Directory Password Server database.
Both offer enhanced security because the password is only set and verified and is never actually read by Open Directory. When these password types are used, only hashed information identifying the location of a user's password in either the Kerberos realm or Open Directory Password Server is physically stored in the user record.
By default, when a server is set up as an Open Directory Master, it is also set up as a Kerberos Key Distribution Center (KDC). This makes Mac OS X Server one of the easiest platforms to set up as a KDC because the process is almost entirely automated. It is also possible to use an alternate KDC -- including an Active Directory domain controller, which is helpful in a multiplatform environment.
In addition to securing password storage, Kerberos offers significant password security for user connections because it relies on tickets to authorize access to any 'Kerberized' services within a network. Thus, a user's password is transmitted only when he first logs in.
Kerberos also provides a seamless, single sign-on environment where users will not be repeatedly asked to authenticate as they connect to servers and browse for Kerberized services. Under Mac OS X Server, these Kerberized services include the Mac OS X log-in window, e-mail, Apple Filing Protocol and Server Message Block protocols for Mac and Windows file/printer sharing, virtual private networks, file transfer protocol services, Apache and Secure Shell access.
Because Mac OS X Server uses a standard Kerberos installation, you can offer additional Kerberized services within your network using servers and clients of other platforms, including Unix. Telnet and Rlogon are two examples of Unix services that can now be used with Kerberos.
The Open Directory Password Server is good for those situations when Kerberos isn't an option. This can be useful for applications and services that don't support Kerberos as well as for times when there is a Kerberos failure. The Open Directory Password Server supports a broad range of standard encryption types for interaction with a range of platforms and services. Although it doesn't offer the secure and single sign-on advantages of Kerberos, the Open Directory Password Server provides solid security that is much better than basic passwords.
By default, when a user's password type is set to Open Directory, Open Directory will attempt to authenticate the user using Kerberos first and only use the password server in those instances where Kerberos isn't available.
Managed client environment
Open Directory offers a rich managed client environment that can be used to secure and define the user environment for all users and computers. Virtually every aspect of the Mac OS X user experience can be preset for new users or can be permanently defined so that it can't be modified.
When using Mac OS X Server 10.4 (Tiger) with computers running the same Mac OS X release, it is also possible to create preference manifests. These are XML files that can be used to define the preferences settings of virtually any Mac OS X application. Managed preferences under Mac OS X can be set for individual users, groups or lists of computers.
Integrating with other directory service platforms
Active Directory integration is often the easiest, and there are several easy methods of integration for both Mac OS X computers and Mac OS X Server. Beyond Active Directory, Open Directory can be integrated with almost any platform that is LDAP-based or supports LDAP queries. In fact, true integration between Open Directory and Active Directory is often done using LDAP.
[music plays]
Camera pans slowly across a home kitchen, then cuts to a mirror. Sady, a woman with spastic cerebral palsy, is in the mirror’s reflection. Her hair is being brushed by her caretaker.
Cut to various shots of Sady being dressed by her caretaker.
(Sady — narrating with the help of electronic voice software)
People think that having a disability is a barrier.
[wheels rolling]
Close-up of her electric wheelchair wheels rolling over a threshold.
[buttons clicking]
Cut to Sady, working with an iMac at a desk in her home. She moves her head to operate switches on both sides of her wheelchair headrest, typing in Pages through Switch Control.
(Sady narrating)
But that’s not the way I see it.
Close-up of the iMac screen reveals her narration as it’s being typed.
Cut to a young man holding up his iPhone while making sign language gestures.
(Sady narrating)
You can catch up with friends.
The man is using FaceTime to have a sign language conversation with a woman.
She signs back while smiling.
Cut to a young man, a boy, and a woman in a park. The young man is taking a photo of the boy with iPhone.
(Sady narrating)
You can capture a moment with your family.
Since the young man is blind, he uses the VoiceOver feature to follow audible commands in the Camera app.
(iPhone)
One face. Small face. Focus lock.
[Camera app shutter sound]
Cut to a close-up of a woman’s hand holding an iPhone. She opens the Home app and taps the Good Morning button.
(Sady narrating)
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And you can start the day bright and early.
The woman is lying in her bed. Her lamp turns on and the window shade rises automatically as a result of pressing the button. She moves from the bed to her wheelchair.
Cut to a doorway as a man exits, prepared to go on a hike with friends. He looks at his iPhone.
(Sady narrating)
You can take a trip to somewhere new.
Close-up of his ear reveals that he is wearing a hearing aid.
[wind blowing loudly]
Cut to a close-up of the man’s iPhone screen. He selects Outdoor in his hearing aid settings.
[wind blowing quietly]
(Woman)
Three miles to the summit.
He continues walking to catch up with his friends.
Cut to a young boy in a classroom, studying on an iPad while wearing headphones.
(Sady narrating)
You can concentrate on every word of a story.
Cut to a close-up of the boy’s iPad screen. “Home Before Dark” is the title of the chapter he’s reading. His iPad reads the first sentence aloud, highlighting each word as it is spoken.
(iPad)
A bird began to sing.
Cut to a close-up of the boy’s face as he reads and listens.
(iPad)
Jack opened his eyes.
Cut to a close-up of an Apple Watch on a woman’s wrist.
She taps Outdoor Wheelchair Run Pace in the Workout app, then taps Start.
(Sady narrating)
You can take the long way home.
The woman quickly propels her wheelchair down a paved path beside the beach. Suddenly, she stops and begins moving backward, as if she were in a video being played in reverse.
[music swelling]
Camera zooms out to reveal that this is a video that Sady is editing in Final Cut Pro. All the previous scenes described above are quickly played in reverse as well.
(Sady narrating)
Or edit a film . . . like this one.
[buttons clicking]
Cut to a close-up of Sady, moving her head to operate switches on both sides of her wheelchair headrest, as she continues editing the film.
(Sady narrating)
When technology is designed for everyone . . .
[buttons clicking]
Cut to a close-up of Sady’s iMac screen where she opens a directional controller and selects a downward motion. She moves the final clip into place — a shot of the woman in the wheelchair racing toward the sunset on the horizon.
(Sady narrating)
. . . it lets anyone do what they love . . . including me.
Cut to a close-up of Sady, smiling.
[click sound]
Cut to the Apple logo against a white background.
Taking a family portrait. Catching up over FaceTime. Raising the blinds to let in the morning light. We want everyone to enjoy the everyday moments that technology helps make possible, so we work to make every Apple product accessible from the very start. Because the true value of a device isn’t measured by how powerful it is, but by how much it empowers you.
Vision
Sometimes a word is worth a thousand pictures.
Apple devices let you write a text or email without seeing the screen. You can take a perfect group selfie just by hearing how many faces are in the frame. Using these features may feel like magic, but it’s very much by design.
In a living room, Carlos plays the drums. He has long, black hair and wears a black t-shirt with a red and white logo that reads: 'Distartica.'
VoiceOver: ReverbNation.
He uses an iPhone, running his finger across the screen.
VoiceOver: Text field. Dictate.
[Chime]
Carlos speaks into his iPhone.
Carlos: Album will be dropping worldwide on April 14th comma 2017 exclamation mark. Follow our ReverbNation page period.
Carlos taps the screen of his iPhone.
[Clicking]
VoiceOver: Done.
He taps the screen again.
[Clicking]
VoiceOver: Successfully shared.
Carlos smiles.
[“The Cybernetic Eye,” by Distartica]
Now, he drums intensely while two long-haired guitarists shred on black guitars. Carlos leans into a microphone, then lets out a shout.
Titles: Carlos V. and VoiceOver On.
A white Apple logo on a black background.
[Cheering]
VoiceOver tells you what’s happening on your screen.
VoiceOver describes exactly what’s happening on your iPhone, Mac, Apple Watch, or Apple TV, so you can navigate your device just by listening. Apple’s built-in apps support VoiceOver, which will talk you through tasks you do with them.
Display Accommodations. Easy on the eyes.
If you have color blindness or other vision challenges, you can adjust the view on your Mac, iPad, iPhone, Apple Watch, and Apple TV so it works better for you. Choose from a preset range of color filters on your iPhone or iPad or fine-tune them. And turn on Invert Colors on all your devices to instantly change the values and create more contrast.
Magnifier works like a digital magnifying glass. It uses the camera on your iPad or iPhone to increase the size of anything you point it at, so you can see the details more clearly.
Upsize the text in apps.
When you activate Larger Dynamic Type on iPhone, iPad, or Apple Watch, the text inside apps like Mail, Messages, and Settings is converted to a larger, easier-to-read size.
Get a closer look with Zoom.
Zoom is a powerful built-in screen magnifier that lets you enlarge a section of your screen to many times its normal size, so you can better see what’s on the display. It works on Mac, iPhone, iPad, Apple Watch, Apple TV, and all apps from the App Store.
Hearing
We want to keep everyone in the conversation.
When products are designed to be accessible, more people can do what they love. That’s why we build powerful features into every operating system and every device to help people who are deaf or hard of hearing.
Shane: Get your instruments. Have a seat.
[Students chatter]
Sheet music is placed onto a stand. In a classroom, a student adjusts a flute.
[Musical scales]
Shane: Now are you going to be able to play today or not, Morgan?
A student hits a snare drum.
[Instruments warming up]
Shane: All right, guys. Ready to try it?
She looks down at an iPhone set atop the music on the stand before her. The iPhone is synced to 'Shane Hearing Aids.”
Shane: Let’s try it. Clarinets, are you up?
Shane pushes her hair over her right ear, revealing a hearing device.
[Clarinets play quietly]
Shane changes the iPhone preset from Normal to Music.
Shane: Clarinets, ready?
In the Hearing Devices menu, she increases Hearing Device Mic Volume to fifty-five percent.
[Volume increases]
She holds a conductor's baton and sweeps her arms upward.
Shane: Breathe.
[Music playing]
Titles: Shane R. and Hearing Aids for iPhone.
A white Apple logo on a black background.
Cut through the noise with Live Listen.
Whether you’re having dinner in a loud restaurant or taking a class in a crowded lecture hall, Live Listen lets you fine-tune your Made for iPhone hearing aids and AirPods to help you hear more clearly. For quiet conversations, move your iPhone or iPad closer to the people who are speaking, and the built-in microphone will amplify what they’re saying.
Catch every sign, gesture, and facial expression with FaceTime.
With high-quality video and a fast frame rate, FaceTime is a great way for people who use sign language to communicate easily. And because Mac, iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch all come equipped with FaceTime, you can talk to iOS and macOS users across the street or across the globe.
There’s a lot more to closed captioning than just reading dialogue. You can also use it to display the music and sound effects while you watch movies and TV shows on any Apple device. So everyone can enjoy a true cinematic experience.
See your phone ring with LED Flash.
Don’t miss an incoming FaceTime call, text message, email, or notification. Just set the LED light on your iPhone camera to flash. Instead of getting an audio alert, you’ll see a blinking light from the rear flash.
Type a note to Siri.
Siri helps you with the things you do every day on your iPhone, iPad, or Mac. But you can also use Siri without speaking commands. Just set Siri to “Type to Siri” mode and use either a physical or onscreen keyboard to ask questions, set reminders, and schedule meetings.
Mobility
A tap. A word.
A million possibilities.
We build powerful assistive features into Apple products to give people with physical limitations greater control over their lives. You can navigate onscreen keyboards and menus with a single tap using Switch Control, customize accessible Multi-Touch gestures to work best for you, or control HomeKit-enabled accessories using just your voice.
[Water rushing]
[Bird calls]
In his motorized wheelchair, Ian moves along a lush forest trail lined by ferns and tall, moss-covered trees.
He approaches a silvery waterfall.
Ian reclines his chair, framing the rushing waters in the capture screen of the Camera on his armrest-mounted iPhone.
[Mechanical whirring]
[Water rushing]
He moves his lower lip against two switches mounted in front of his mouth to use Switch Control.
[Clicking]
He selects the shutter button, now outlined by a green box, then takes a photo.
[Shutter snaps]
[Water rushing]
[Bird calls]
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Ian gazes up at the cascading waterfall. His long, blonde hair hangs in dreadlocks from under a black and white bandana. His black puffer jacket is coated in mist.
[Clicking]
[Water rushing]
Titles: Ian M. and Switch Control.
A white Apple logo on a black background.
With Switch Control, you’re in control.
Switch Control is assistive technology that lets you use built-in features as well as switches, a joystick, or other adaptive devices to control what’s on your screen. So you can fully interact with your iPhone, iPad, Mac, or Apple TV without touching it.
Hey Siri, make it
warmer downstairs
Manage your house
and your music.
With just your voice.
Turn on the lights, start the coffee, open the blinds, or play the latest hit song just by speaking. HomePod is both a Siri-enabled intelligent assistant that works with your HomeKit-enabled accessories and an incredible music speaker. And now with Siri Shortcuts for HomePod, iOS, and watchOS, you can run multi-action commands through simple phrases custom-designed to fit your needs.
If you have trouble using standard gestures, like pinch, you can use AssistiveTouch to change them. Customize gestures and make other features accessible with just a touch from the AssistiveTouch menu.
Activity and Workout apps. Set a goal, then push yourself past it.
Apple Watch has fitness algorithms designed for wheelchair users. Instead of steps, the Workout and Activity apps track your pushes and keep you motivated. Close your rings with reminders like “time to roll,” and enjoy wheelchair-specific workouts.
Accessibility Keyboard. Type what you see.
You can navigate macOS with minimal use of a physical keyboard. The Accessibility Keyboard is fully customizable and gives users advanced typing and navigation capabilities. And now it includes new toolbar support, as well as improved typing, autocapitalization, and word suggestions.
Learning
Focus your attention. Unleash your imagination.
Everyone learns differently. And our products are designed to support those differences. So they include innovative technologies that can read words or even whole pages aloud for auditory learners. And now Screen Time helps everyone better understand and manage device usage. Whether it’s for yourself or a family member, you can view the amount of time spent in apps and set specific limits for each one.
[Whistle blows]
Three teenage girls sit on the sidelines of a soccer game. They wear matching green and white uniforms. Two of the girls lean in to watch the middle girl, Meera, as she uses an iPad.
Digital Voice: We all went to Simon's Island in Georgia.
Girl: I've been there.
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Digital Voice: I loved it.
Girl: Where's another place you've been?
Meera taps the screen of her iPad, generating a response.
Digital Voice: Alaska.
Girl: Wow.
[Cheering]
The three girls smile as they look up at the field.
Girls: Go, Violet!
Meera exclaims and claps.
Girl: We have a good team this year.
Meera nods, then taps on her iPad.
Digital Voice: They are awesome.
Girl: They really are.
Girl: Yeah, even though we've only won once.
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Titles: Meera P. and TouchChat on iPad.
[Whistle blows]
A white Apple logo on a black background.
Powerful innovations come together to help you communicate.
Every iPad, iPhone, and Mac has built-in communication features that support learning. FaceTime lets you communicate visually, whether you use sign language, gestures, or facial expressions. Speak Selection helps with language development by speaking words you’re reading. And Text to Speech can make learning easier by letting you hear what you’re reading and writing. There are also many third-party apps in the App Store, including TouchChat, to help you communicate more easily.
With Speak Screen, a reading experience can be a listening experience.
If it’s easier for you to read while hearing the words spoken aloud, Speak Screen can read text from newspapers, books, web pages, or email on your iPhone or iPad.
With Typing Feedback turned on, your iPad or iPhone can give you spoken feedback, including text corrections and word suggestions, as you type. So you can stay focused on what you’re typing.
Bring focus with
Guided Access.
Guided Access lets parents, teachers, or therapists limit iPad to one app at a time, and limit the amount of time spent in an app. So iPad can be a powerful tool for autistic people or those with attention and sensory challenges.
Safari Reader puts the emphasis on content.
For some students, navigating the web on iPad, iPhone, or Mac can be sensory overload. Safari Reader reduces the visual clutter. It strips away ads, buttons, and navigation bars, allowing you to focus on just the content you want. And on Mac, you can choose to use Reader automatically on websites where it’s available.
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Explore the accessibility features built into our products.
Learn
Discover accessibility features that work for you in a Today at Apple session.
Every Apple Store offers in-person Today at Apple sessions designed to teach the basics of using the assistive technologies built into our products.